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Different Japanese Arts : FOLK CRAFTS ( mingei ) The term mingei has two meanings. Firstly, it refers to objects hand-crafted for daily use and secondly it refers to the movement begun by Yanagi Muneyoshi (1889-1961), who coined the terms in 1926. Yanagi himself preferred to translate mingei as "folk crafts," which emphasizes the utilitarian aspect, rather than "folk arts," although both terms have been used. Yanagi suggested specific characteristics for Mingei:
The Folk Craft Movement Collecting examples of folk crafts from the Korean Yi dynasty (1392-1910) led Yanagi to realize that the most beautiful objects were the products not of individual artists but of the collective genius of the Korean people. He concluded that the approach of modern European art history, which emphasized the creativity of individual artists, was inadequate in understanding mingei. Instead, Yanagi turned his attention to the work of a Japanese priest, Mokujiki Gogyo (1718-1810), who had carved tens of thousand of rough Buddhist images while travelling throughout Japan. To Yanagi these figures, created in response to the hopes and aspirations of the masses, were more beautiful than the Buddhist images by famous sculptors displayed by great temples. Around this time Yanagi also discovered Tamba ware, with its rich patterns of glaze formed during firing from wood ash randomly falling and fusing with the ceramic surface. Reflecting on this process, he concluded that beauty was not the result of any conscious intent but was born of chance and the cumulative skill of generations of unknown artists. Yanagi saw this process as akin to the Buddhist concept of tariki, the attainment of salvation not through one's own merits but through complete reliance on the Buddha's mercy. Based on these theories Yanagi coined the term mingei to differentiate between bijutsu, or fine art, which he saw as created for aesthetic appreciation alone, and kogei, or utilitarian craftwork made for practical use. Yanagi saw kogei as a broader term than mingei: kogei included objects made by machine and by individual artists, as well as "aristocratic" works. But he also claimed that the best of kogei belonged to the category of mingei. According to Yanagi, the character of kogei was defined, first, by yo (use of function): kogei objects must be simple and sturdy to function effectively. Second, kogei objects must be produced on a large scale at low prices. Third, the beauty of authentic kogei is created by anonymous laborers who have honed their skill by turning out large numbers of articles without thought of self-expression. Fourth, hand-crafted kogei objects are superior to those made by machine. History of Japanese Folk Crafts Tracing the history of folk crafts following the canons laid down by Yanagi is difficult because so few examples survive. Some scholars consider the earthenware of the Jomon (ca 10,000 BC-ca 300 BC) and Yayoi (ca 300 BC-ca AD 300) periods to be the first folk art in Japan. The "six old Kilns" (roku koyo) were established in Echizen, Shigaraki, Seto, Tokoname, Tamba, and Bizen during the Heian period (794-1185), each producing pottery with distinct local characteristics. However, pottery then was considered precious and rare. Most of what is today considered mingei survives from the Muromachi period (1333-1568). This is doubtless partly because the traditional Japanese style of living, as presently understood, became widely established at that time: the shoin-zukuri type of architecture was perfected, the techniques for making lacquer ware (negoro-nuri; kamakura-bori) and pottery were highly developed. This, along with increased production, led to wider distribution of articles. The popularization of the tea ceremony from the Muromachi period through the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1600) was another important factor. Local pottery and textile producers flourished in the latter half of the Edo period (1600-1868). Many examples from this period can still be found, and they set the standards of beauty in Japanese folk crafts. By the early 20th century, however, with the introduction of synthetics and increasing reliance on machinery, folk crafts began to decline. Folk crafts in Yanagi's sense of the term have nearly become extinct in Japan. However, folk traditions in a broader sense are still thriving. Under the Cultural Properties Law of 1950 the concept of cultural assets (bunkazai) was revised and broadened, encouraging governmental participation in the preservation of folk knowledge, folk performing arts, games, and folk utensils (mingu) used for making clothing, food, and shelter and in trade or communal life. Classification of Folk Crafts Folk crafts are generally classified in the categories of ceramics; wood and bamboo articles; metal and leather objects; dyeing and weaving; paper; and painting; sculpture, and calligraphy. Ceramics include
Wood and bamboo craftworks include
Metal work includes
Textiles include
Surviving washi products include kites from Nagasaki Prefecture and shibuuchiwa (fans) from Kutami in Kumamoto Prefecture. Numerous types of paintings and religious sculptures are considered representative of Japanese folk crafts, although in these categories there are different opinions about what is and what is not folk craft. (According to Yanagi's somewhat personal and subjective criteria, otsu-e are included among folk arts whereas ukiyo-e are not.) Present designations of what can be considered mingei should not be accepted as final, since scholars may develop a more comprehensive method of categorization in the future.
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